Throwback: 400-meter Physiology and Training
Moving to British Columbia to study at UBC in 2009 allowed me to take a deep dive into my technical and practical understanding of the sports of track and field and cross country. I was studying with and being mentored by some of the brightest minds in the world while working as an assistant coach with the Thunderbird track and field and cross country teams. I had also begun training and racing again myself. Luckily, I found two brilliant training partners with Canadian national team pedigrees, one in cross country, and one in the 400-meter, who inspired further intellectual curiosity and inquiry. During my graduate research into the training methodology and the bio-energetic physiological demands of the 800-meter run, I found the 400-meter run to be nearly as interesting and contentious.
The following is another paper I wrote while at UBC concerning the the physiology and training of athletes competing at 400-meters.
Introduction
At the championship level, the sport of track and field is composed of twenty-seven events contested both indoors and outdoors. Including throws, jumps, and running events that all combine varying degrees of speed, power and endurance, track and field presents the athlete and coach with a huge array of physiological extremes and related training implications. From the indoor 60-meter dash, an event characterized by pure speed and power based in alactic anaerobic energy pathways, to the grueling 42-kilometer marathon requiring incredible management of oxidative energy, track and field forces the competent coach to pay close attention to physiological principles surrounding training and racing. While the extreme examples of the 60-meter dash and the marathon possess challenges for coaches and athletes, it is the mid-range events, like the 400-meter, that blur physiological lines and require special attention.
Kenny Moore’s story of legendary cross-country and track and field coach Bill Bowerman, and the University of Oregon teams he coached, offers a window into this event. A 400-meter runner himself as an athlete at the University of Oregon, Bowerman’s introduction to the 400-meter is described, “When the nausea and burn ebbed, he was able to lift his watch to his eyes” (Moore, 2006, p.53). A rather simple yet visceral example such as this illustrates clearly the demands the 400-meter runner is placed under. Moore goes on to explain; “It (the 400-meter) is also about 100 yards farther than a man or woman can truly, physiologically, sprint. Thus it is won by the athlete who slows down least” (Moore, 2006, p.111). This physiological illustration is precisely why the 400-meter distance receives attention from researchers, yet is understood by few coaches and athletes.
Clyde Hart and ‘Quarter Mile U’
It is perhaps foolish to begin any investigation into the 400-meter race distance without first mentioning Coach Clyde Hart of Baylor University in Waco Texas. Coach Hart is one of the few coaches to have developed a true understanding of this event. During Hart’s tenure, one that spans over four decades, Baylor has become known as ‘Quarter Mile U’, and for good reason. In that time he has developed 34 national champions, 516 All-Americans, set 10 world records and nine NCAA records. His eight Olympic pupils have gone on to win nine medals. Yet what is most remarkable about these statistics is the fact that the vast majority of these performances have been in the 400-meter or 4x400-meter relay. (Baylor, 2010)
One must wonder why Hart has had such overarching success with few consistent challengers? Examination of Hart’s writings and investigation into the bioenergetics of the event itself seem to reveal a remarkable understanding in Hart’s methods. Principles that seem simple and glaring on the surface but, for any number of ideological and methodological reasons, are not fully understood or applied by many, are utilized with obvious success by Coach Hart.
“The 400-meter dash is an endurance sprint incorporating the speed of the sprinter and the endurance of the half miler” (Hart, 2001). This statement is literally the sum of the event. Like the explanation offered by Moore, Coach Hart goes on to say, “No one is capable of running the 400-meter from start to finish all out” (Hart, 2001). Combined, these two statements would seem to concisely illuminate, in plain terms, the physiological principles one should employ in training to produce success in this event. However, a more clear explanation of energetic demand based in research is necessary in order to develop a fuller understanding.
Energetic Demands of the 400-meter
The two statements highlighted above hint at a high degree of energetic demand, however, the degree of energetic contribution from alactic anaerobic, lactic anaerobic and aerobic energy systems is a misunderstood topic among coaches. Paul Gastin points out two very common stumbling points in a 2001 review article noting that early interpretations of research have lead to misconceptions that:
“…the energy systems respond to the demands of intense exercise in an almost sequential manner, and secondly, that the aerobic system responds slowly to these energy demands, thereby playing little role in determining performance over short durations (Gastin, 2001, p.725)”
These two commonly held beliefs will be important to note as we further examine a cross section of research into, and applied training derived from, the bio-energetics of exercise.
As Gastin points out, in the application of this knowledge, we must remember that each of these systems is an interrelated part of energy production during exercise. (Gastin, 2001) The relative contribution between these systems during exercise remains extremely important for training and racing purposes, as it would seem logical to devote a proportional percentage of training time to honing the bodies utilization of energy from each. First we must understand what these contributions are. Table 1 highlights nearly 25 years of work into the contributory bio-energetics of the 400-meter dash.
Table 1: Studies in bio-energetic contributions during 400m-running
| Source (Year) | Participants | Model Type | Mean Time (s) | Aer. Cont | An. Cont |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Astrand & Rodahl (1977) | - | - | - | - | 70% |
| Ward-Smith (1985) | Male | M.M. | 44.9 | 28% | 72% |
| Peronnet & Thibault (1989) | Male | M.M. | 44.1 | 30% | 70% |
| Lacour et al. (1990) | Male - 400m Specialists | Fld.T. | - | 28% | 72% |
| Newsholme et al. (1992) | - | - | - | - | 75% |
| Weyand et al. (1993) | Male - Distance Runners | Lab.T. | 58.5 | - | 33% |
| Weyand et al. (1993) | Male - Sprinters | Lab.T. | 50.5 | - | 36% |
| Weyand et al. (1993) | Female - Distance Runners | Lab.T. | 57.9 | - | 30% |
| Weyand et al. (1993) | Female - Sprinters | Lab.T. | 70.6 | - | 34% |
| Spencer et al. (1996) | Male - Distance Runners | - | - | - | 63% |
| Foss & Keteyian (1998) | - | - | - | - | 82% |
| Hill (1999) | Male - 400m Specialists | Fld.T. | 49.3 | 37% | 63% |
| Hill (1999) | Female - 400m Specialists | Fld.T. | 52.2 | 38% | 62% |
| Spencer & Gastin (2001) | Male | Lab.T. | 49.3 | 43% | 57% |
| Duffield & Dawson (n.d.) | Male - 400m Specialists | Lab.T. & Fld.T. | 52.2 | 41.3% | 58.7% |
| Duffield & Dawson (n.d.) | Female - 400m Specialists | Lab.T. & Fld.T. | 60.2 | 44.5% | 55.5% |
Table Legend:
(s) - Time to Completion in Seconds
Fld.T. - Field Test
Lab.T. - Laboratory Test
M.M. - Mathematical Model
Aer. Cont. - Aerobic Contribution
An. Cont. - Anaerobic Contribution
With the exception of Dr. Peter Weyand and colleagues (1993), anaerobic energy has been shown here to be the dominant energy system during trials simulating the 400-meter race distance. These results are not surprising. It is common knowledge in track and field that the 400-meter is largely characterized by its necessity for anaerobic energy utilization. “Maintaining near-maximal intensity during this event and diminishing the drop in velocity during the second half, requires high lactic as well as alactic anaerobic capacity” (Saraslanidis, Manetzis, Tsalis, Zafeiridis, Mougios & Kellis, 2009, p.2266). What is perhaps more important is the transition between dominate energy systems.
Spencer and Gastin provide a window into the utilization of anaerobic energy in research from 2001 published by the American College of Sports Medicine in Medicine & Science in Sports and Exercise.
Table 2: Initial energy expenditure during various trial distances/times.
| Energetic Profile | 200-meter / 22.3 | 400-meter / 49.3 | 800-meter / 1:53 | 1500-meter / 3:55 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total Aerobic Metabolism | 29% | 43% | 66% | 84% |
| Aerobic energy release first 20s (ml-kg) | 12.9 | 9.5 | 10 | 14.6 |
| Anaerobic energy release first 20s (ml-kg) | 24.6 | 20.2 | 15.3 | 10.1 |
| Adapted from Spencer & Gastin 2001 |
Considering ‘immediate’ alactic anaerobic energy from the ATP-CP chain stored in muscle tissue lasts in the area of 10 seconds (Gastin, 2001), these early stage measurements by Spencer and Gastin (2001) provide clues into anaerobic energy expenditure and relative alactic and lactic energy utilization. As distance increases and pace slows, both the total amount of energy released and the percentage of energy derived from anaerobic pathways decrease, while aerobic energy release appears to remain largely consistent. These early stage trends suggest that anaerobic energy utilization while running may be dependent on pacing and that, even during intense exercise, alactic energetic pathways are not initially exhausted. This effect has research-based precedents. Medbo and Tabata (1993), upon examining working muscle biopsy samples after exhaustive cycling tests, found that reserves in phosphocreatine concentration persisted after efforts as long as three minutes in duration (Medbo & Tabata, 1993). This becomes important when considering training methodology and race strategy, as alactic anaerobic pathways are short lived, but produce little in the way of metabolic waste products. It appears that if one manages pace, to the slightest degree, in the initial stages of a 400-meter race, a sparing effect may be accomplished, effectively saving some of the ATP stored in muscle tissue for utilization in the late stages of the event. If any effect of this nature were to be found, it would be dependent on not only anaerobic energy utilization, but the ability to utilize aerobic energy efficiently as well. These findings lend strong support to Coach Hart’s summation that “the ability to distribute one’s speed and energies in the most efficient manner over the total racing distance becomes the primary concern in reaching success in the 400-meter dash” (Hart, 2001).
Many members of the track and field community, with acknowledgement of the physiological impossibility of sprinting the entire race distance, still group the 400-meter with the 200-meter and even the 100-meter. Often this is done with only subtle alterations in training strategy. While the 400-meter is an event largely marked by sustained near maximal effort, in Table 1, with the exception of Foss and Keteyian (1998), aerobic energy is shown to be a significant factor in the energetic breakdown of this event allowing for at least 25 percent of measured energetic cost. Previous researchers have suggested that oxidative metabolism reaches a point of equal contribution with anaerobic energy between two and three minutes, and has been argued and reduced in specific work by Gastin (2001), Duffield Dawson and Goodman (2005), and Duffield and Dawson (n.d.) to between 70 and 80-seconds. “It is evident that the aerobic energy system responds quickly… with the crossover to predominantly aerobic energy supply occurring between 15 and 30s (seconds) for the 400-, 800-, and 1500-m groups” (Spencer and Gastin, 2001, p.159). Here Spencer and Gastin (2001) further illustrate the speed of response in energy production through oxidative metabolism. If it is assumed that this equalization in energy utilization takes place at the 30-second upper limit given by Spencer and Gastin (2001), the current world records for the 400-meter race distance of 43.18 by Michael Johnson of the United States and 47.60 Marita Koch of former East Germany (IAAF) still yield a 30 and 37-percent aerobic energy contribution respectively. These figures are largely congruent with the findings presented in Table 1.
As time increases and anaerobic energetic pathways become exhausted, aerobic energy becomes, by necessity, a larger contributory factor. “After peaking within the first 5-10 sec, the powerful anaerobic metabolic supply declines exponentially with time, as concurrently the less powerful process of oxidative metabolism is still increasing” (Duffield & Dawson n.d.). This would suggest that time to completion in a given test or race effort would be a relevant predictor of relative energetic contribution, making the athletic caliber of the subject tested an important consideration. Simply put, “the better the athlete, the greater should be the anaerobic contribution, primarily because the duration of the event is reduced” (Hill 1999). This seemingly provides further evidence of the importance of aerobic energy in the 400-meter event as the times for the world records in this event shown above present with a fairly high aerobic demand based on time to completion.
Regardless of the actual point in time where anaerobic and aerobic energy become equal contributors, it is clear that all three systems of energy production are vital to the 400-meter runner and that aerobic energy has often been underestimated in maximal effort exercise.
Implications in Application
In a practical sense, the persistent underestimation of aerobic contribution in maximal effort exercise has caused a deficit in training methodology. Many coaches, and indeed researchers, ignore aerobic development, or assume that the requisite amount of aerobic development will be achieved as a byproduct of focusing on anaerobic and specific speed endurance training. This is evident in the opening remarks of a recent study by Saraslanidis and colleagues (2009):
“It is a belief among coaches that the body adapts to the kind of stress that is imposed upon it and performs better under conditions of similar stress. Because the lactate system constitutes the main energy source in the 400-m sprint, training programs for the 400-m aim at maximizing the anaerobic lactic capacity for energy production (Saraslanidis, et al., 2009).”
While joining the masses who underestimate aerobic contribution, Coach Hart places emphasis on ‘pure aerobic running’ in his writings about the coaching and training of 400-meter runners (Hart, 2001). This emphasis is not without precedent. Unfortunately neither is the consistent misunderstanding of the contributory workings of the body’s energy producing systems.
In a 1985 presentation on training technique used in the 400 and 800-meter races, Cuban double Olympic gold medalist Alberto Juantorena outlined the differences in the various preparation cycles he and coach Zigmund Zabierzowskey utilized before the 1972 Munich and 1976 Montreal Olympic games. It is important to note that in Munich Juantorena only ran the 400-meter and did not make the Olympic final. In the Montreal Games, Juantorena achieved a feet without precedent and unmatched to date in winning both the 400 and 800-meter distances in what were, at the time, new world low altitude and world records respectively. As Juantorena’s training in these periods is examined, a significant increase in training volume and aerobic work is found. During what Juantorena calls his ‘general preparation’ phase, variable paced but continuous running, often called ‘fartlek’ training, is utilized reaching volumes of 13-kilometers in one session before Montreal in 1976. In the same preparation phase prior to Munich in 1972 no training of this kind is emphasized. During his ‘special preparation’ phase before Montreal, much more cross-country running of between one and nine kilometers was stressed, where in the same cycle in 1972, again, none was emphasized (Juantorena, 1985). Curiously, Juantorena himself appears to make no mention of this drastic alteration in training as a major factor contributing to his unparalleled success in 1976. He instead calls attention to subtle alterations in the type, frequency and intensity of interval training and a focus toward ‘technical shortcomings’ saying:
During the 68-72 Olympic four-year period, there were top-level results in the 400m race… With the contribution of Sciences Applied to Sports, especially in the 1970-80 decade with specific progress as regards research and practical applications on the field, many criteria on the theory of training were enriched, chiefly concerning intensity work (Juantorena, 1985, n.p.).
Juantorena also seems to consider much of the alterations in his training a result of;
“…the necessary means to make an attempt on the next higher distance, the 800m. With the pretext of the injury and recovery circumstances, he searched for a ‘family’ of distances to be used as base work and to allow for a milder training (Juantorena, 1985, n.p.).”
While it is of course true that Juantorena suffered injury in the 1974 and 1975 seasons that required surgical intervention, and the alterations in his training may have been to allow for a less intense training model for purposes of continued recovery (Juantorena, 1985), clearly he benefited from the further development of aerobic power and capacity. These alterations in training and results would not be so significant if Juantorena were simply to have moved up to the 800-meter distance, in fact this would be considered nothing special or novel at all. It is the fact that he not only improved in the 400-meter distance, but improved to the point of Olympic gold and world record fame in both disciplines that makes his example such a powerful one. Juantorena’s statements and circumstances here lend strong support to Paul Gastin’s assertion that the interpretation of early research into energy systems was quite inaccurate with lasting result (2001). This oversight would appear to directly support the claims that the underestimation of the importance of aerobic energy has been a long-standing reality and that the direct evidence supporting its importance is often overlooked.
Conclusions
One of the most interesting and arguable statements regarding the topic of coaching, training, and racing for the 400-meter distance can be found in an article written by coach Clyde Hart titled 400 Meter Training:
“The main reason we are seeing more of the sprinter type succeed in the 400 meters today is largely due to the fact that we are able to develop stamina and endurance more effectively than we can increase the sprinting abilities of the middle distance runner (Hart, 2001, n.p.).”
If the information presented in his writing is to be believed, this assertion by coach Hart is accurate because he is one of the few who have not largely ignored the role of aerobic energy and the physiological processes that enhance endurance and stamina when training athletes for the long sprints. Coach Hart’s claim may hold true if we are to believe that the development of sprinting abilities in middle distance runners is a more difficult task physiologically. It is however, more likely that the middle distance runner has, if by accident, been mindful of the role aerobic energy during higher intensity shorter duration efforts. While many sprint athletes have not been trained in any capacity for aerobic development, making improvements in this population’s ability at the 400-meters race distance a simple matter of, as appears to be the case with the great Alberto Juantorena, aerobic development.
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